Brazil is the world’s leader in coffee production. In 2023 alone, Brazil produced 3.4 billion tonnes of coffee, corresponding to more than 30% of the global coffee production. 38% of the coffee production in Brazil comes from smallholder farmers, where the labor force is composed by at least 50% of family members. In Brazil, smallholder family farmers still represent 67% of the agricultural labor force of the country, but their contributions are shrinking.
The State of Espirito Santo (ES on map) is the second largest coffee producer in Brazil, only behind Minas Gerais (MG), followed by São Paulo (SP) and Bahia (BA).
In the city of Afonso Claudio, coffee cultivation is the primary economic activity, with high-quality beans produced because of ideal climate, high altitude, and favorable soil conditions. Both Arabica and Robusta coffee are produced, and Arabica coffee has special varieties in the region (Arabica and Robusta – one way of differentiating them is by looking at the leaves).
Here, I will delve into the process of coffee production by the smallholder farmers from a specific location in Afonso Claudio, called Ribeirão do Costa. There, they have a strong sense of community, with the same families running the farms as generations ago. Because coffee is usually planted in hills in that region, there is not much a machine can do in the field, so most of the process is handmade. The terrain there is very uneven, and the coffee is cultivated in the many mountains around the family houses. The great majority of the plantations are not irrigated, but this has become more common in the last 5 years because of the climate change affecting the region.
Coffee Seedling Transplantation
Before planting coffee, a planting pit is made. The soil is tested for pH value, acidity is corrected with lime, and fertilizer (NPK 19-04-19) is added to the pit. After that, a seedling is planted.
Coffee is usually planted in the rainy season, which is from October to March in this region. A small corridor is left empty between coffee rows for the farmers to work on the plants. The rows are usually 2.5 meters wide and can be more than 10 meters long. In the coffee row, the distance between every plant is usually 1 meter (high density planting).
After planting coffee, it takes two years to start producing. If the plant doesn’t die from disease or fire, it can last for many decades. The only difference in the treatment between young and mature plants is that for young plants, there is no herbicide applied for the first two years; the weed must be controlled by hoe or motorized brush cutter only.
The harvesting season in the region starts in May. The first harvesting is usually low in grain volume but after four years, the plant is considered an adult and has its full yield. From now on, we will discuss the care of adult coffee plants, meaning 4+ years old.
Harvesting Coffee
The crop year starts in November, when the plants are first fertilized after the previous harvesting. In January, there is the pruning of the lateral shoots, keeping the axial growth (vertical) as priority, followed by a second fertilization. Fertilization needs to be done in the rainy season (January) so the fertilizer can deepen in the soil and reach the roots of the plants. In February, there is de-sprout, leaving only two sprouts left to produce coffee beans. There is then the third and last fertilization which is now for the plant to grow its beans. The farmers must keep removing the weeds every ~15 days. 30 days before harvesting, glyphosate 1% is applied to the land between crops so farmers don’t have to keep weeding during harvesting season, which is the busiest season of the year.
During and after harvesting, the coffee beans need to be processed as they are harvested, which lasts until late August.
Post-Harvest Processing
The first process after harvesting the coffee cherries is depulping, carried out using a coffee depulping machine. The wet coffee beans are placed in a drying greenhouse, where they remain for 3–5 days. During this period, the coffee is raked every hour under sunny conditions to ensure uniform drying.
After drying, the moisture content is measured using a coffee moisture meter, and it must reach 11–12% before the next step. The coffee is then hulled using a hulling machine. Every 60 kg of hulled coffee is commercialized as a coffee bag.
Climate Crisis Challenges for Smallholder Coffee Producers
The climate crisis presents multidimensional challenges for smallholder coffee producers, particularly in regions such as Espírito Santo, where coffee plays a central economic and social role. According to the Plano de Adaptação às Mudanças Climáticas do Espírito Santo (PEAMC), or Espirito Santo’s climate change adaptation plan in English, climate projections indicate rising average temperatures, more frequent heat extremes, changes in precipitation patterns, longer consecutive dry periods, and intensified extreme rainfall events. High temperatures directly impair photosynthesis, reducing plant metabolic efficiency and yield potential. Field observations highlight irregular flowering cycles and disruptions during grain filling, leading to smaller beans, a higher incidence of empty or poorly formed beans, and overall productivity losses. These physiological stresses are compounded by increasing water scarcity. The PEAMC identifies growing risks of hydric and thermal stress for agriculture under both optimistic (SSP2-4.5) and pessimistic (SSP5-8.5) scenarios, reinforcing concerns about the future suitability of traditional coffee-growing areas. For smallholders, who often depend primarily on coffee income, these climatic pressures translate into heightened economic vulnerability and reduced livelihood stability. The Plan emphasizes that climate change affects not only average conditions but also variability and extremes.
Such variability directly impacts irrigation systems, reservoir storage, and soil moisture dynamics. The severe drought of 2014–2015 in the region, referenced in the Plan, exemplifies how prolonged dry periods can deplete reservoirs and compromise irrigation-dependent systems. Smallholder farmers are particularly exposed due to limited access to infrastructure, technical assistance, and financial buffers. The PEAMC organizes adaptation efforts into thematic axes, including agronomic and livestock systems, water resources, infrastructure, and social vulnerability. Within agriculture, resilience-building strategies include:
- Improved soil management to increase water retention
- Micro-terracing and terracing to reduce runoff and enhance infiltration
- Agroforestry systems to moderate microclimates
- Investment in research and innovation, including heat-tolerant varieties
- Nature-based solutions to enhance ecosystem resilience
- Agroforestry practices such as integrating coffee with shade trees
Shade tree inclusion, which are already being used with papaya trees, are particularly promising, as they reduce canopy temperature, improve soil moisture conservation, and increase system-level resistance.
The climate crisis for smallholder coffee producers is not limited to agronomic stress; it is a systemic challenge involving water security, infrastructure resilience, governance capacity, and social equity. Effective adaptation requires integrating technological innovation (e.g., plant protectants and tolerant genotypes), ecosystem-based management (e.g., agroforestry), and coordinated public policy frameworks. As yield losses have not yet exceeded 50%, many farmers do not perceive sufficient urgency to invest in costly adaptive technologies. Moreover, limited awareness of emerging innovations further constrains adoption. Strengthening knowledge dissemination, improving access to information, and clearly communicating projected climate risks are therefore critical to fostering proactive adaptation and safeguarding the long-term resilience of the community.
